<h2><SPAN name="chapter6" id="chapter6">CHAPTER VI</SPAN></h2>
<h3>THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE</h3>
<div class="blkquot">
Since the great improvements of the steam engine, it is
astonishing to what a variety of manufactures this useful
machine has been applied: yet it does not a little excite
our surprise that one is used for the trifling object of grinding
chocolate.</div>
<div class="blkquot">
It is, however, a fact, or at least, we are credibly informed,
that Mr. Fry, of Bristol, has in his new manufactory one
of these engines for the sole purpose of manufacturing
chocolate and cocoa.</div>
<div class="citation">
<i>Berrow's Worcester Journal,</i>
June 7th, 1798.</div>
<p>What I am about to write under this heading
will only be of a general character. Those
who require a more detailed exposition are
referred to the standard works given at the end of the
chapter. In these, full and accurate information will be
found. The information published in modern Encyclopædias,
etc., concerning the manufacture of chocolate
is not always as reliable as one might expect. Thus
it states in Jack's excellent <i>Reference Book</i> (1914) that
"Chocolate is made by the addition of water and
sugar." The use of water in the manufacture of chocolate
is contrary to all usual practice, so much so that
great interest was aroused in the trade some years ago
by the statement that water was being used by a firm
in Germany.
<SPAN name="page140" id="page140"></SPAN></p>
<h3>SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE.</h3>
<div class="centre">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2">Ingredients required for <i>plain eating-chocolate</i>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Cacao nib or mass</td><td align="right">33 parts.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Cacao butter</td><td align="right">13 parts.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="right">53¾ parts.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Flavouring</td><td align="right" class="bb">¼ parts.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td><td align="right">100 parts.</td>
</tr>
</table></div>
<p>Since eating-chocolate is produced by mixing sugar
and cacao nib, with or without flavouring materials,
and reducing to a fine homogeneous mass, the principles
underlying its manufacture are obviously simple,
yet when we come to consider the production of a
modern high-class chocolate we find the processes involved
are somewhat elaborate.</p>
<h4>(<i>a</i>) <i>Preparing the Nib or "Mass."</i></h4>
<p>The nib is obtained in exactly the same way as in
the manufacture of cocoa, the beans being cleaned,
roasted and shelled. The roasting, however, is generally
somewhat lighter for chocolate than for cocoa. The
nibs produced may be used as they are, or they may be
first ground to "mass" by means of mill-stones as
described above.</p>
<h4>(<i>b</i>) <i>Mixing in the Sugar.</i></h4>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image82" id="image82"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image082.jpg">
<ANTIMG src="images/image082_thumb.jpg" alt="CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake. Orr & Coy. Ltd." title="CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake. Orr & Coy. Ltd." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR.<br/>
Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake. Orr & Coy. Ltd.</p>
</div>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image83" id="image83"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image083.jpg">
<ANTIMG src="images/image083_thumb.jpg" alt="PLAN OF CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR." title="PLAN OF CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
PLAN OF CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR.</p>
</div>
<p>Some makers use clear crystalline granulated sugar,
others disintegrate loaf sugar to a beautiful snow-white
flour. The nib, coarse or finely ground, is mixed
with the sugar in a kind of edge-runner or grinding-mixer,
called a <i>mélangeur</i>. As is seen in the photo, the
<i>mélangeur</i> consists of two heavy mill-stones which are
supported on a granite floor. This floor revolves and
causes the stationary mill-stones to rotate on their
axes, so that although they run rapidly, like a man on
a "joy wheel," they make no headway. The material
is prevented from accumulating at the sides by curved
<SPAN name="page141" id="page141"></SPAN>
<SPAN name="page142" id="page142"></SPAN>
scrapers, which gracefully deflect the stream of material
to the part of the revolving floor which runs under the
mill-stones. Thus the sugar and nib are mixed and
crushed. As the mixture usually becomes like dough
in consistency, it can be neatly removed from the
<i>mélangeur</i> with a shovel. The operator rests a shovel
lightly on the revolving floor, and the material mounts
into a heap upon it.</p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image84" id="image84"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image084.jpg">
<ANTIMG src="images/image084_thumb.jpg" alt="CHOCOLATE REFINING MACHINE. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden." title="CHOCOLATE REFINING MACHINE. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
CHOCOLATE REFINING MACHINE.<br/>
Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden.</p>
</div>
<h4>(<i>c</i>) <i>Grinding the Mixture.</i></h4>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image85" id="image85"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image085.jpg">
<ANTIMG src="images/image085_thumb.jpg" alt="GRINDING CACAO NIB AND SUGAR. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville)." title="GRINDING CACAO NIB AND SUGAR. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville)." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
GRINDING CACAO NIB AND SUGAR.<br/>
(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville).</p>
</div>
<p>The mixture is now passed through a mill, which
has been described as looking like a multiple mangle.
The object of this is to break down the sugar and cacao
to smaller particles. The rolls may be made either of
granite (more strictly speaking, of quartz diorite) or
<SPAN name="page143" id="page143"></SPAN>
<SPAN name="page144" id="page144"></SPAN>
of polished chilled cast iron. Chilled cast iron rolls
have the advantage that they can be kept cool by having
water flowing through them. A skilled operator is
required to set the rolls in order that they may give a
large and satisfactory output. The cylinders in contact
run at different speeds, and, as will be seen in the
diagram, the chocolate always clings to the roll which
is revolving with the greater velocity, and is delivered
from the rolls either as a curtain of chocolate or as a
spray of chocolate powder. It is very striking to see the
soft chocolate-coloured dough become, after merely
passing between the rolls, a dry powder—the explanation
is that the sugar having been more finely crushed
now requires a greater quantity of cacao butter to lubricate
it before the mixture can again become plastic.
The chocolate in its various stages of manufacture,
should be kept warm or it will solidify and much time
and heat (and possibly temper) will be absorbed in
remelting it; for this and other reasons most chocolate
factories have a number of hot rooms, in which the
chocolate is stored whilst waiting to pass on to the
next operation. The dry powder coming from the rolls
is either taken to a hot room, or at once mixed in a
warm <i>mélangeur</i>, where curiously enough the whole
becomes once again of the consistency of dough. The
grinding between the rolls and the mixing in the
<i>mélangeur</i> are repeated any number of times until the
chocolate is of the desired fineness. Whilst there are a
few people who like the clean, hard feel of sugar crystals
between the teeth, the present-day taste is all for
very smooth and highly refined chocolate; hence the
grinding operation is one of the most important in the
factory, and is checked at the works at Bournville by
measuring with a microscope the size of the particles.
The cost of fine grinding is considerable, for whilst
the first breaking down of the cacao nibs and sugar
crystals is comparatively easy, it is found that as the
particles of chocolate get finer the cost of further reduction
increases by leaps and bounds. The chocolate
<SPAN name="page145" id="page145"></SPAN>
may now proceed direct to the moulding rooms or it
may first be conched.</p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image86" id="image86"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image086.jpg">
<ANTIMG class="noborder" src="images/image086_thumb.jpg" alt="SECTION THROUGH CHOCOLATE GRINDING ROLLS." title="SECTION THROUGH CHOCOLATE GRINDING ROLLS." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
SECTION THROUGH CHOCOLATE GRINDING ROLLS.</p>
</div>
<h4>(<i>d</i>) <i>Conching.</i></h4>
<p>We now come to an extraordinary process which is
said to have been originally introduced to satisfy a
fastidious taste that demanded a chocolate which
readily melted in the mouth and yet had not the cloying
effect which is produced by excess of cacao butter.
In this process the chocolate is put in a vessel shaped
something like a shell (hence called a <i>conche</i>), and a
heavy roller is pushed to and fro in the chocolate.
Although the conche is considered to have revolutionized
the chocolate industry, it will remain to the uninitiated
a curious sight to see a room full of machines
engaged in pummelling chocolate day and night.
There is no general agreement as to exactly how the
conche produces its effects—from the scientific point
<SPAN name="page146" id="page146"></SPAN>
of view the changes are complex and elusive, and too
technical to explain here—but it is well known that if
this process is continued for periods varying according
to the result desired from a few hours to a week, characteristic
changes occur which make the chocolate a
more mellow and finished confection, having more or
less the velvet feel of <i>chocolat fondant</i>.</p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image87" id="image87"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image087.jpg">
<ANTIMG class="noborder" src="images/image087_thumb.jpg" alt=""CONCHE" MACHINES. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden." title=""CONCHE" MACHINES. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
"CONCHE" MACHINES.<br/>
Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden.</p>
</div>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image88" id="image88"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image088.jpg">
<ANTIMG class="noborder" src="images/image088_thumb.jpg" alt="SECTION THROUGH "CONCHE" MACHINE." title="SECTION THROUGH "CONCHE" MACHINE." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
SECTION THROUGH "CONCHE" MACHINE.</p>
</div>
<h4>(<i>e</i>) <i>Flavouring.</i></h4>
<p>Art is shown not only in the choice of the cacao beans
but also in the selection of spices and essences, for,
whilst the fundamental flavour of a chocolate is determined
by the blend of beans and the method of manufacture,
the piquancy and special character are often
obtained by the addition of minute quantities of
flavourings. The point in the manufacture at which the
flavour is added is as late as possible so as to avoid the
possible loss of aroma in handling. The flavours used
include cardamom, cassia, cinnamon, cloves, coriander,
lemon, mace, and last but most popular of all, the
vanilla pod or vanillin. Some makers use the choice
spices themselves, others prefer their essential oils.
Many other nutty, fragrant and aromatic substances
have been used; of these we may mention almonds,
coffee, musk, ambergris, gum benzoin and balsam of
Peru. The English like delicately flavoured confections,
whilst the Spanish follow the old custom of
heavily spicing the chocolate. In ancient recipes we
read of the use of white and red peppers, and the
addition of hot spices was defended and even recommended
on purely philosophical grounds. It was given,
in the strange jargon of the Peripatetics, as a dictum
that chocolate is by nature cold and dry and therefore
ought to be mixed with things which are hot.</p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image89" id="image89"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image089.jpg">
<ANTIMG class="noborder" src="images/image089_thumb.jpg" alt="MACHINES FOR MIXING OR "CONCHING" CHOCOLATE." title="MACHINES FOR MIXING OR "CONCHING" CHOCOLATE." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
MACHINES FOR MIXING OR "CONCHING" CHOCOLATE.</p>
</div>
<h4>(<i>f</i>) <i>Moulding.</i></h4>
<p>Small quantities of cacao butter will have been added
to the chocolate at various stages, and hence the finished
product is quite plastic. It is now brought from the
<SPAN name="page147" id="page147"></SPAN>
<SPAN name="page148" id="page148"></SPAN>
hot room (or the <i>mélangeur</i> or the conche) to the moulding
rooms. Before moulding, the chocolate is passed
through a machine, known as a compressor, which
removes air-bubbles. This is a necessary process, as
people would not care to purchase chocolate full of
holes. As in the previous operations, every effort has
been made to produce a chocolate of smooth texture
and fine flavour, so in the moulding rooms skill is
exercised in converting the plastic mass into hard bars
and cakes, which snap when broken and which have a
pleasant appearance. Well-moulded chocolate has a
good gloss, a rich colour and a correct shape.
<SPAN name="page149" id="page149"></SPAN></p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image90" id="image90"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image090.jpg">
<ANTIMG class="noborder" src="images/image090_thumb.jpg" alt="CHOCOLATE SHAKING TABLE." title="CHOCOLATE SHAKING TABLE." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
CHOCOLATE SHAKING TABLE.</p>
</div>
<p>The most important factor in obtaining a good
appearance is the temperature, and chocolate is frequently
passed through a machine (called a tempering
machine) merely to give it the desired temperature.
A suitable temperature for moulding, according to
Zipperer, varies from 28° C. on a hot summer's day to
32° C. on a winter's day. As the melting point of cacao
butter is about 32° C, it will be realized that the butter
is super-cooled and is ready to crystallize on the slightest
provocation. Each mould has to contain the same quantity
of chocolate. Weighing by hand has been abandoned
in favour of a machine which automatically
deposits a definite weight, such as a quarter or half a
pound, of the chocolate paste on each mould. The
chocolate stands up like a lump of dough and has to be
persuaded to lie down and fill the mould. This can be
most effectively accomplished by banging the mould
up and down on a table. In the factory the method
used is to place the moulds on rocking tables which
rise gradually and fall with a bump. The diagram will
make clear how these vibrating tables are worked by
<SPAN name="page150" id="page150"></SPAN>
means of ratchet wheels. Rocking tables are made which
are silent in action, but the moulds jerkily dancing
about on the table make a very lively clatter, such a
noise as might be produced by a regiment of mad
cavalry crossing a courtyard. During the shaking-up
the chocolate fills every crevice of the mould, and any
bubbles, which if left in would spoil the appearance of
the chocolate, rise to the top. The chocolate then passes
on to an endless band which conducts the mould
through a chamber in which cold air is moving. As
the chocolate cools, it solidifies and contracts so that it
comes out of the mould clean and bright. In this way
are produced the familiar sticks and cakes of chocolate.
A similar method is used in producing "Croquettes"
and the small tablets known as "Neapolitans." Other
forms require more elaborate moulds; thus the chocolate
eggs, which fill the confectioners' windows just
before Easter, are generally hollow, unless they are
very small, and are made in two halves by pressing
chocolate in egg-shaped moulds and then uniting the
two halves. Chocolate cremes, caramels, almonds and,
in fact, fancy "chocolates" generally, are produced
in quite a different manner. For these <i>chocolats de
fantaisie</i> a rather liquid chocolate is required known as
covering chocolate.</p>
<h3>SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE.</h3>
<div class="centre">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2">Ingredients required for <i>chocolate for covering cremes</i>, etc.:</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Cacao nib or mass</td><td align="right">30 parts</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Cacao butter</td><td align="right">20 parts</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="right">49¾ parts</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Flavouring</td><td align="right" class="bb">¼ parts</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td><td align="right">100 parts</td>
</tr>
</table></div>
<p>It is prepared in exactly the same way as ordinary
eating chocolate, save that more butter is added to
make it flow readily, so that in the melted condition it
<SPAN name="page151" id="page151"></SPAN>
has about the same consistency as cream. The operations
so far described are conducted by men, but the
covering of cremes and the packing of the finished
chocolates into boxes are performed by girls. Covering
is light work requiring a delicate touch, and if, as is
usual, it is done in bright airy rooms, is a pleasant
occupation.</p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image91" id="image91"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image091.jpg">
<ANTIMG src="images/image091_thumb.jpg" alt=" GIRLS COVERING, OR DIPPING, CREMES, ETC. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)" title=" GIRLS COVERING, OR DIPPING, CREMES, ETC. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)" /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
GIRLS COVERING, OR DIPPING, CREMES, ETC.
(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)</p>
</div>
<p>The girl sits with a small bowl of warm liquid
chocolate in front of her, and on one side the "centres"
(cremes, caramels, ginger, nuts, etc.) ready for covering
with chocolate. The chocolate must be at just the
right temperature, which is 88 °F., or 31° C. She takes
one of the "centres," say a vanilla creme, on her fork
and dips it beneath the chocolate. When she draws it
out, the white creme is completely covered in brown
chocolate and, without touching it with her finger, she
deftly places it on a piece of smooth paper. A little
<SPAN name="page152" id="page152"></SPAN>
twirl of the fork or drawing a prong across the chocolate
will give the characteristic marking on the top of the
chocolate creme. The chocolate rapidly sets to a crisp
film enveloping the soft creme. There are in use in
many chocolate factories some very ingenious covering
machines, invented in 1903, which, as they clothe
cremes in a robe of chocolate, are known as "enrobers";
it is doubtful, however, if the chocolates so
produced have even quite so good an appearance as
when the covering is done by hand.</p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image92" id="image92"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image092.jpg">
<ANTIMG class="noborder" src="images/image092_thumb.jpg" alt="THE ENROBER. A machine for covering cremes, etc., with chocolate. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Savy Jeanjean & Co., Paris." title="THE ENROBER. A machine for covering cremes, etc., with chocolate. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Savy Jeanjean & Co., Paris." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
THE ENROBER.<br/>
A machine for covering cremes, etc., with chocolate.<br/>
Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Savy Jeanjean & Co., Paris.</p>
</div>
<p>It would be agreeable at this point to describe the
making of cremes (which, by the way, contrary to the
opinion of most writers, contain no cream or butter),
and other products of the confectioner's art, but it
would take us beyond the scope of the present book.
We will only remind our readers of the great variety
of comestibles and confections which are covered in
<SPAN name="page153" id="page153"></SPAN>
<SPAN name="page154" id="page154"></SPAN>
chocolate—pistachio nut, roasted almonds, pralines,
biscuits, walnuts, nougat, montelimar, fruits, fruit
cremes, jellies, Turkish delight, marshmallows, caramels,
pine-apple, noisette, and other delicacies.</p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image93" id="image93"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image093.jpg">
<ANTIMG src="images/image093_thumb.jpg" alt="A CONFECTIONERY ROOM AT MESSRS. CADBURY'S WORKS AT BOURNVILLE. Cutting almond paste by hand moulds." title="A CONFECTIONERY ROOM AT MESSRS. CADBURY'S WORKS AT BOURNVILLE. Cutting almond paste by hand moulds." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
A CONFECTIONERY ROOM AT MESSRS. CADBURY'S WORKS AT BOURNVILLE.<br/>
Cutting almond paste by hand moulds.</p>
</div>
<h3><i>Milk Chocolate.</i></h3>
<p>We owe the introduction of this excellent food and
confection to the researches of M.D. Peter of Vevey,
in Switzerland, who produced milk chocolate as early
as 1876. Many of our older readers will remember
their delight when in the eighteen nineties they first
tasted Peter's milk chocolate. Later the then little firm
of Cailler, realising the importance of having the
factory on the very spot where rich milk was produced
in abundance, established a works near Gruyères. This
grew rapidly and soon became the largest factory in
Switzerland. The sound principle of having your
factory in the heart of a milk producing area was adopted
by Cadbury's, who built milk condensing factories
at the ancient village of Frampton-on-Severn, in
Gloucestershire, and at Knighton, near Newport, Salop.
Before the war these two factories together condensed
from two to three million gallons of milk a year. Whilst
the amount of milk used in England for making milk
chocolate appears very great when expressed in gallons,
it is seen to be very small (being only about one-half
of one per cent.) when expressed as a fraction of the
total milk production. Milk chocolate is not made from
milk produced in the winter, when milk is scarce, but
from milk produced in the spring and summer when
there is milk in excess of the usual household requirements,
and when it is rich and creamy. The importance
of not interfering with the normal milk supply to
local customers is appreciated by the chocolate makers,
who take steps to prevent this. It will interest public
analysts and others to know that Cadbury's have had no
difficulty in making it a stipulation in their contracts
with the vendors that the milk supplied to them shall
contain at least 3.5 per cent. of butter fat, a 17 per
<SPAN name="page155" id="page155"></SPAN>
cent. increase on the minimum fixed by the Government.</p>
<div class="centre">
<SPAN name="image94" id="image94"></SPAN>
<SPAN href="images/image094.jpg">
<ANTIMG src="images/image094_thumb.jpg" alt="FACTORY AT FRAMPTON, GLOUCESTERSHIRE, AT WHICH MILK IS EVAPORATED FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.)." title="FACTORY AT FRAMPTON, GLOUCESTERSHIRE, AT WHICH MILK IS EVAPORATED FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.)." /></SPAN>
<p class="caption">
FACTORY AT FRAMPTON, GLOUCESTERSHIRE, AT WHICH MILK IS EVAPORATED FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE.<br/>
(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.).</p>
</div>
<h3>SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE.</h3>
<div class="centre">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2">Ingredients required for <i>milk chocolate</i>:</td><td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Cacao nib or mass (from 10 to 20 per cent.), say</td><td align="right">10</td><td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Cacao Butter</td><td align="right">20</td><td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="right">44¾</td><td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Milk solids (from 15 to 25 per cent.), say</td>
<td align="right">25</td><td align="right">= (200 parts of milk.)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Flavouring</td><td align="right" class="bb">¼</td><td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td><td align="right">100</td><td></td>
</tr>
</table></div>
<p>Milk chocolate consists of an intimate mixture of cacao
nib, sugar and milk, condensed by evaporation. The
manner in which the milk is mixed with the cacao nib
is a matter of taste, and the art of combining milk with
chocolate, so as to retain the full flavour of each, has
<SPAN name="page156" id="page156"></SPAN>
engaged the attention of many experts. At present there
is no general method of manufacture—each maker
has his own secret processes, which generally include
the use of grinding mills, <i>mélangeurs</i>, conches, moulding
machines, etc., as with plain chocolate. We cannot
do better than refer those who wish to know more of
this, or other branch of the chocolate industry, to the
following English, French and German standard works
on Chocolate Manufacture:</p>
<ul>
<li><i>Cocoa and Chocolate, Their Chemistry and Manufacture</i>, by R.
Whymper (Churchill).</li>
<li><i>Fabrication du Chocolat</i>, by Fritsch (Scientifique et Industrielle).</li>
<li><i>The Manufacture of Chocolate</i>, by Dr. Paul Zipperer (Spon).</li>
</ul>
<hr class="longer" />
<p><SPAN name="page157" id="page157"></SPAN></p>
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